The Harvard Study is a very important study for a sociologist because sociologists are more interested in studying human behavior, their interactions, and their organization in a social setting. It is a study whose findings can teach society a lot, and central to these lessons would be how to live a healthy and happy life. Also, it would reveal the connection between health and happiness to other social factors like connections. As seen in the videos, some of the latest findings showed that health and happiness are linked to having meaningful connections. Also, on a personal level, the Harvard Study would arouse the desire for self-examination for people to see if they are living healthy lives.
When examining the study findings, the emerging outcome is that this study has changed over time from generation to generation. As reported by Dr. Robert Waldinger in the first videos, when the study began, the general belief in society was that happiness and good health resulted from a persons personality (CBS Morning, 2016). However, these findings have changed over time with the change in generations. In the second video, he confesses that the Millenials goals are to get rich or be famous; hence, they need to work hard towards these things (TED, n.d). This finding means that for the Millenials, what makes a person happy in the future is being wealthy and famous. These findings indicate that society may also determine what people perceive to be reasons for happiness. In other words, the results of this study may change depending on generations and also depending on the societies.
Finally, I believe the Harvard Study may take much longer because of the changes in the findings. Essentially, the study began with about 700 participants, and over time, these participants have reduced. Thus, the longevity of this study is influenced by the life span of the participants. However, the study may be longer because there are new things and perspectives for each generation.
References
CBS Morning (2016). What makes us happy and healthy? YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Zqloy9Ma_s&t=219s
TED (n.d). Robert Waldinger: What makes a good life? Lessons from the longest study on happiness. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KkKuTCFvzI
Discuss The Harvard Study and the findings. After watching the videos and exploring the website, including what you have discovered regarding the changes from the beginning of the study to now. What are your thoughts regarding the study, findings, and longevity of the study?
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The definition of sexuality is the gender or sex one is attracted to. Many believe that the default for sexuality should be an attraction to the opposite sex and that anyone who goes against this convention is doing so by choice. However, as more research has been conducted on sexuality, the results have shown that it is more complex. In addition, research in the past has shown that sexuality is not a choice but rather a result of biological and sociocultural factors, even though these factors are yet proven.
According to a genome-wide association study conducted by Ganna et al. (2019), individuals with the same sexual orientation exhibited five loci not present in people with opposite sexual direction (Hodges, 2021). Although this study concludes that these genetic variations account for about 8 to 25% of same-sex behavior, it is evident that there is a difference between straight people and gay people. These variations specifically impact their sexual orientation (Hodges, 2021). Notably, this study is one of the first to confirm a biological aspect of ones sexual orientation after decades of research; therefore, one can conclude that with more advanced studies, more discoveries will also be made on the matter.
Furthermore, other factors have also been argued to influence ones sexual orientation. These factors include ones environment (sociocultural) and hormones. During the development of a baby while in the mothers womb, the prenatal endocrine environment has been shown to have a considerable impact on the babys sexuality (Balthazart, 2011). Moreover, researchers believe that the environment can affect ones sexuality (Payne, 2020). For example, if an individual grows up in a community that embraces same-sex orientation, they are likely to become gay. The same case applies to homophobia, leading to one becoming straight. As a Christian, I believe that God made everyone in His image and likeness; therefore, I know that different sexualities are just as usual, having different skin color or eye color.
References
Balthazar, J. (2011). Minireview: Hormones and human sexual orientation. Endocrinology, 152(8), 2937-2947.
Ganna, A., Verweij, K. J., Nivard, M. G., Maier, R., Wedow, R., Busch, A. S., & Zietsch, B. P. (2019). Large-scale GWAS reveals insights into the genetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior. Science, 365(6456), eaat7693.
Hodges, B. S. (2021). Is Sexuality a Choice? An Analysis of the Facts and Factors that Influence Ones Sexual Orientation.
Payne, W. (2020). Population & the environment. Human Behavior and the Social Environment II.
Do you think sexual orientation is a choice or not? Explain your answer.
Your opinion may differ from other classmates. Please be respectful.
Please Note: My sexual orientation is Straight. I dont believe its a choice; Im a Christian by faith, and God has created us perfectly. Please write based on my beliefs. Thanks
From birth, people are categorized as male or female, and under given circumstances, as intersex. This categorizing based on biological traits has contributed to societal ideologies such as gender, which sets boundaries for people to behave in a society based on their category. Not only do these societal constructs dictate how people act in terms of economic and social factors, but they also affect sexuality. Sexuality involves sexual behaviour, including sexual acts and orientation/preference, among others. Accordingly, sexuality points to social scripts.
Sexual scripts are guidelines that guide sexual behaviour or act in terms of participants, timeline, location, and meaning (Crash Course, 2017). Consistently, sexual scripts define or label interactions involving sexual behaviours, orientation, and acts. Further, sexual scripts are based on societal gender roles guiding how culturally people behave, with the male being more dominant than the submissive female (Klein et al., 2018). With this in mind, my thoughts on sexual scripts are that they are oppressive and limiting in most cases while substantial in others.
In my opinion, the fact that sexual scripts are dependent on gender roles limits gender expression. Based on sexual scripts, men are considered dominant, more superior to women, who are expected to be submissive. These constructs will limit men and women not being comfortable in their preassigned roles and thus are oppressing and limiting an individuals self-identity. Additionally, sexual activities between a married couple are considered proper, while between a married person and a person other than his wife is considered infidelity; also, forced sexual relations are considered rape; in this case, I find the sexual scripts substantial.
I feel sexual scripts affect peoples functionality. Peoples functionality heavily depends on gender roles, dictating how they behave, interact and socialize with others. Gender roles are reinforced by sexual scripts that govern peoples interactions and functionality. Consequently, most male people dominantly conduct themselves while women conduct themselves submissively, just as men are expected to make the first move when they are interested in someone else; that is in approaching others.
References
Crash Course. (2017). Sex & Sexuality: Crash Course Sociology #31 [Video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kqt-_ILgv5c.
Klein, V., Imhoff, R., Reininger, K., & Briken, P. (2018). Perceptions of Sexual Script Deviation in Women and Men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(2), 631-644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1280-x
Various societies well-being depends on their ability to conform to specific societal or cultural norms. However, individual action towards these norms is often varied. Individuals may either conform to these norms or violate them. Social deviance refers to the violation of cultural or societal norms, either formally or informally. This paper seeks to discuss social deviance, emphasizing the mechanism of social sanctions as a component of social control and the sociological perspective of social deviance.
Social control is targeted at attaining social order. This can be achieved by sanctioning individuals who do not conform to societal norms (Gibbs, 2022). Sanctions can either be positive or negative. Positive sanctions are rewards or appreciation given to individuals who conform to societal norms. Examples of positive sanctions include gift awards, promotions at job places, certificates of appreciation, medals, and pay raises. These sanctions are aimed at enhancing the morale of these individuals and encouraging them to continue their impressive work. Negative sanctions are punishments given to individuals who do not conform to societal norms (Gibbs, 2022). Examples of negative sanctions include fines, social discrimination, disapproval, and exclusion.
Social sanctions can also be classified as informal or formal. Formal sanctions are official ways in which violations of societal norms can be recognized and enforced. Formal sanctions can either be positive or negative. Examples of positive formal sanctions include official commendation of remarkable service provisions by a caregiver within a hospital setup. Negative formal sanctions include imprisonment for law offenders, suspension from school, termination of job or contract, and fines. Informal sanctions, on the other hand, are those that are not covered under the legal frameworks that govern societal actions but still attract punishment (Gibbs, 2022). They include exclusion from a meeting after misconduct, public ridicule after public misconduct, and public shame after an embarrassing act.
Three sociological perspectives have been established and have formed the basis for these theoretical frameworks. These sociological perspectives are functionalism, conflict theory, and social interactions.
Several theories represent functionalist perspectives. My favorite theory is Emile Durkheims The Essential Nature of Deviance theory. This theory asserts that deviance is essential to society and challenges peoples perspectives on contemporary societal issues. This theory is my favorite because it adequately explains the genesis of resenting voices within societies and gives meaning to these resenting voices. It also accords these resenting voices validity by explaining their significance within society.
Conflict theory perspectives have been represented by several theories as well. My favorite theory is Karl Marxs theory of an unequal system. This theory stratifies the population into the wealthy and the bourgeois. The wealthy controlled businesses and means of production, while the bourgeois depended on the wealthy for employment and survival. This theory intrigues me because it accurately presents the social classes existing within the present societies. The wealthy in todays society is the influential elite who control all sectors of the economy.
Two theories have presented symbolic interactionism. My favorite theory is Edwin Sutherlands Differential Association theory. This theory asserts that individuals who develop deviant behaviors learn these behaviors from persons close to them. This theory is my favorite because it explains the spread of deviant behaviors among family members. It proves that being close to individuals who exhibit deviant behavior can be learned.
References
Gibbs, Jack P. The sociology of deviance and social control. Social psychology. Routledge, 2017. 483-522
OpenStax College_ Heather Griffiths_ Nathan Keirns_ Eric Strayer_ Susan Cody-Rydzewski_ Gail Scaramuzzo_ Tommy Sadler_ Sally Vyain_ Jeff Bry_ Faye Jones Introduction to Sociology-OpenStax College (2. pdf. Google Docs. (2022). Retrieved 12 February 2022, from: https://openstax.org/details/books/introduction-sociology-2e
1. According to sociologist William Graham Sumner, deviance violates established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or codified law (1906).
Social deviance is also a social structure that we can analyze at both macro and micro levels. However, to understand the mechanism of social deviance, we should know the nature of positive, negative, format,l and informal sanctions in social control on page 137 of the online textbook, chapter 7. Read Table 7.1 on page 138 from the online textbook chapter 7 and write your OWN formal/informal, negative/positive sanctions as examples.
2. Sociology analyzes social deviance based on three sociological perspectives, with several studies on social deviance.
Please check the list of studies for each perspective, explain your favorite theories for functionalism, conflict, and symbolic interaction separately, and write why these are your favorites. Please read them from the online textbook, chapter 7.
Functionalism (Macro level of analysis in Sociology): How social deviance creates the function/dysfunction (manifest/latent) in societies and cultures;
-Emile Durkheim: The Essential Nature of Deviance ( page 138 from the online textbook chapter 7)
-Robert Merton: Strain Theory (page 138-138)
-Social Disorganization Theory ( page 139)
-Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay: Cultural Deviance Theory (page 139-140)
Conflict Theory (Macro Level of analysis in Sociology): How social deviance creates inequities/inequalities, social tensions, and power relations in societies and cultures.
-Karl Marx: An Unequal System (page 140)
-C. Wright Mills: The Power Elite (page 140)
-Crime and Social Class (page 140)
Symbolic Interaction (Micro Level of analysis in Sociology): How the social meanings are shared by people in the process of social deviance in societies and cultures.
-Labeling Theory (page 141)
-Edwin Sutherland: Differential Association (page 142)
-Travis Hirschi: Control Theory (page 143)
Community is considered a vague term in sociology, and it is because of this vagueness that different sociologists have given varying definitions of this term. Talcott Parsons defines a community as a collection of people living in one territorial region as their base where they live and operate. Ferdinand Tonnies, on the other hand, defines a community as a natural social group that has members who are united by a sense of belonging. The day-to-day interactions between the members also create that. Society can also be viewed as a collection of people living together and sharing the same interests. From all these ideologies, one common factor is that people must live together in a single region for a community to exist.
There are various types of communities. One type of community is the urban area community. This is a community that contains tertiary activities. This community is densely populated and closely spaced, and the members have a busy lifestyle and demonstrate strong community coherence. Another type of community is the suburban community located at the border of the urban areas. Lastly, the rural establishments form another type of community, which firmly holds to cultural cohesion. In addition, a rural community has the identity that forms the foundation for suburban and urban communities.
The central role of a social worker is to identify communities and individuals with needs and offer them help. They work to help people overcome the challenges of, for instance, divorce and unemployment. Communities are made up of a group of people, and through assisting individuals, social workers help a community as a whole. Moreover, social workers are interested in the communitys welfare, so communities are at the center of the work and interests of social workers. In a nutshell, the social worker is interested in the overall health of a community.
Define what a community is. Describe the different types of communities. Discuss why the community is often the cornerstone of our work as social workers.
Social Work-Community
Please Note: Answers should be written completely in your own words, not copied from the textbook or any other sources. Any question asking for examples must be original examples created by you, not examples from your textbook.
When sociologists investigate a pandemic, they focus on the social issues surrounding it. Such social issues are the emotional challenges accompanying pandemics, deaths, and other losses affecting the individuals social life. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, specific social issues emerged, such as racial gaps regarding access to medication and economic issues. Perry, Aronson, and Pescosolido (2021) supported this issue by unveiling how the pandemic exposed social and economic inequalities in America. That is, some ethnic communities are struggling economically and lack access to medication, and as a result, they face severe social challenges like psychological illnesses. Therefore, based on this observation, sociologists will be interested in how the pandemic affects people at the micro and macro levels.
A lot of data can be collected from micro and macro data. To understand how vital these levels of data are, it is essential to begin by understanding them. The macro data is collected through a large-scale social process like social stability or social change. Micro-level, on the other hand, offers data collected from small-scale interactions like group dynamics (Khanacademymedicine, 2014). As such, when a researcher collects data through these two levels, they are sure of getting information on how a broader issue affects society at the smaller levels. At the same time, these levels of data will help the researcher see how minor issues at the lowest levels affect the larger community (Hammond, Cheney & Pearsey, 2021). For instance, the COVID-19 pandemic was a broad problem but caused issues at the micro-level. For example, the revelation that American society had some communities seriously marginalized is an indication of data collected at the micro-level, which offers more information on the impacts of the pandemic. Also, this information collected at the micro-level can reveal to a sociologist the magnitude of the COVID-19 pandemic on American society.
References
Hammond, R., Cheney, P. & Pearsey, R. (2021) Sociology of the Family: Chapter 03 Sociological Theories of the Family. Retrieved from http://freesociologybooks.com/Sociology_Of_The_Family/03_Sociological_Theories%09_Of_The_Family.php
Perry, B. L., Aronson, B., & Pescosolido, B. A. (2021). Pandemic precarity: COVID-19 is exposing and exacerbating inequalities in the American heartland. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(8). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2020685118
Khanacademymedicine. (2014). Macrosociology vs microsociology. YouTube Retrieved from https://youtu.be/-BVeSykcQeE.
As a sociologist, how would you study a world pandemic? Do you think the use of micro or macro data would provide you with the most valuable information?
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Prostitution is defined as engaging in promiscuous sexual relations, especially for money. A crime is an act that violates official law, and it is punishable through formal sanctions such as the criminal justice system (Casella, 2020). On the other hand, deviance is a violation of certain social norms that vary across various social milieu. Therefore, prostitution is a deviant act across various cultures and is categorized as a victimless crime in some states and in other countries.
Usually, prostitution involves the consent of all the parties involved in that kind of relation, so there is no victim or any crime reported; therefore, it should not necessarily be considered a criminal offense. Additionally, legalizing prostitution may help in preventing other crimes of violence. For instance, in states where prostitution is legal, prostitutes can reject any customer and enforce using condoms since the law protects them; hence, the use of force and violence is nonexistent altogether (Hardaway, 2003).
Furthermore, state regulations require licensed brothels to maintain storage for hygienic supplies and prophylactic devices. This means that the spread of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases is prevented. Also, solicitation is prohibited. There are no incidents of forced prostitution, and the brothels hire men strictly for the purposes of maintenance and repair of the facility. Thus, in such states, almost no problems with solicitation are reported in cities near the brothels (Hardaway, 2003).
In conclusion, prostitution should be considered a deviant act, not a criminal offense. Not all deviant activities are criminal activities. For instance, talking loudly during an important conference meeting is deviant, and since it does not involve breaking any legal rule, it is not considered a crime. Prostitution should be considered similarly, but not in the case of forced prostitution. Legalizing the act prevents other crimes of violence and other deviant acts like a solicitation. However, other non-deviant income-generating opportunities should be provided to avoid engaging in prostitution.
References
Cassella, K. (2020). Social Work and Deviant Behavior. Eastern Gateway Community College.
Hardaway, R. (2003). No Price Too High: Victimless Crimes and the Ninth Amendment. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.
One of the common challenges that has faced the US since time immemorial is the issue of racism. African Americans have always been a target of maltreatment, and this can be observed in racial inequalities and differences in education, housing, health care, and employment opportunities, among others. In this case, an interracial couple is the subject of racial mistreatment because the man is African American. As one of the residents in the neighborhood, it will be important for me to speak up and take action to prevent such actions from taking place again.
As a resident in the neighborhood, I will mobilize a few vocal members from the neighborhood who share the same sentiments of dislike for the racial acts towards the couple. Margaret Mead advised that a small group of committed and thoughtful citizens have the ability to change the world (Anonymous, 2020). Together, we will publicly condemn the action by taking it on social media platforms as well as using posters and fliers that advocate for an end to racism and mobilizing people to discussions on racism.
According to Chernega (2015), most people find it very uncomfortable to talk about race and racism, yet failure to talk about it only augments the problem. It will be important to first acknowledge that there is a problem of racism in the neighborhood. Discussing such issues together with other people will help individuals understand that race is a socially constructed aspect that only brings division and inequalities in society (Taylor, 2000). In these meetings, it will be important to discuss ways in which the whole neighborhood can learn to coexist peacefully with individuals from different races, and members who bring about divisions should face some consequences that will be agreed upon by everyone. These efforts will only bear fruit if local officials also participate in condemning racism in the community.
After graduating from college, you obtain a job in a medium-sized city in the Midwest and rent an apartment in a house in a nearby town. A family with an African-American father and white mother has recently moved into a house down the street.
Sociology-Race
You think nothing of it, but you begin to hear some of the neighbors express concern that the neighborhood has begun to change. Then, one night, a brick is thrown through the window of the new familys home, and around the brick is wrapped with the message, Go back to where you came from! Since youre new to the neighborhood yourself, you dont want to make waves, but you are also shocked by this act of racial hatred. You can speak up somehow, or you can stay quiet. What do you decide to do? Why?
Intellectual disability comprises problems affecting general mental abilities that majorly affect intellectual functioning and adaptive functioning.
Resources Available for Parents Who Have Children With Intellectual or Developmental Disabilities
Intellectual disability is one of the most common developmental disabilities in the United States. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) provides several guidelines that regulate early intervention and special education services to such children. Immediately a child is diagnosed with an intellectual disability, it is recommended that the parents get in touch with an early intervention system within their community (Rosenberg et al., 2017). This is an IDEA-mandated system that is designed to aid children and parents of children with intellectual disabilities until their third birthdays. Parents get referred to early intervention services by their pediatricians and other healthcare facilities within their community.
Several organizations, such as Understood.org, which is made up of fifteen non-profit organizations, play a vital role in aiding families and children with intellectual disabilities. These organizations provide useful and well-researched information that greatly aids parents living with children with intellectual disabilities. The Centre for Parent Information and Resources has a list of parent centers within each state that aid and train parents who have children with intellectual and learning disabilities (Deb et al., 2020). This and other key platforms provide critical information and resources that greatly aid parents living with children with disabilities.
How Social Workers Can Talk With Joels Parents to Assure Them There Is Hope for Joel Living a Meaningful Life
Social workers should engage Joels parents in all issues related to their sons care. This can be done by regular visitations to Joels home by the social workers to share with his parents and constantly reassure them that their son can still lead a normal and independent life. The social workers should also encourage Joels parents to identify their sons strengths and abilities and aim to perfect them. This can greatly change Joels dads perception of his lastborn. In the case where Joel is athletically gifted, a collaboration between the social workers and his parents can greatly aid him in improving. The social workers should also be ready to listen and address any issues raised by Joels parents without any form of judgment or discrimination.
Locating Policy Information
Organizations such as The Arc have made it their mission to promote and protect the rights of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities and engage in active support to enable the inclusion of these individuals into their communities throughout their lifetimes (Luckasson et al., 2017). They do this by actively fighting for the rights and inclusion of people living with intellectual disability and their families. Grassroots advocacy and other initiatives aimed at advocating for the inclusion and assimilation of people with intellectual disabilities by this organization are important in securing the future of these individuals.
I was responding to the idea of marriage.
The social workers should point out to Joels parents that marriage, despite their sons condition, is a possibility. Before entering into marriage, the social workers should point out to Joels parents that a good relationship between them and their son is critical in ensuring healthy relationships later on. They should also inform the parents that though there are no general rules forbidding people with intellectual disabilities from marrying, the court system can take away that right in the event it is determined that the individual is incapable of entering into a marriage contract (Whittle et al., 2018). The issue of heredity of developmental conditions that can be passed on should also be addressed. Genetic counseling should be emphasized in the event that these individuals want to have children.
References
Deb, S., Retzer, A., Roy, M., Acharya, R., Limbu, B., & Roy, A. (2020). The effectiveness of parent training for children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review and meta-analyses. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02973-7
Luckasson, R., Ford, M. E., McMillan, E. D., Misilo, F. M., & Nygren, M. A. (2017). Intellectual disability policy as developed, expressed, and evaluated in AAIDD/the ARC joint statements: The role of organization position statements. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 55(4), 269275. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-55.4.269
Reid, S. M., Meehan, E. M., Arnup, S. J., & Reddihough, D. S. (2018). Intellectual disability in Cerebral Palsy: A population-based retrospective study. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 60(7), 687694. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.13773
Rosenberg, S. A., Elbaum, B., Rosenberg, C. R., Kellar-Guenther, Y., & McManus, B. M. (2017). From flawed design to misleading information. American Journal of Evaluation, 39(3), 350363. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214017732410
Whittle, C., & Butler, C. (2018). Sexuality in the lives of people with intellectual disabilities: A meta-ethnographic synthesis of qualitative studies. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 75, 6881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.02.008
Suzanne was 43 when she received the surprise news that she was pregnant again. While she was glad to finally have a son, along with her 23-year-old twin daughters Jessica and Megan, Suzanne felt a sense of loss when she learned that Joel had an intellectual disability (ID). Joes dad, Tom, was proud of his daughters academic and athletic accomplishments but felt uneasy relating to Joel. Tom kept quiet as his wife Suzanne disclosed her anxiety about helping Joel navigate through life. Somehow, envisioning Joel participating in Special Olympics in the future, rather than high school and college sports, left a hole in Suzanne and Toms hearts. To prepare for an inevitable future, Suzanne decided to volunteer at a local sheltered workshop and day program where she observed other children with intellectual disabilities enjoy horseback riding and work with their hands. One day, Suzanne overheard the parents of two 23-year-old young adults with ID discuss how their children wanted to get married and have children. This conversation made Suzanne feel very uncomfortable, and she didnt know how to broach this subject with Tom.
1. What resources exist for parents who have children with intellectual or developmental disabilities?
2. How can social workers talk with Joels parents to assure them there is hope for Joel to live a meaningful life?
3. Where might Joels parents and local social workers locate policy information to help them advocate for Joel in the future?
4. How would social workers respond to the idea of young adults with ID wanting to get married and raise children?
According to OpenStax (2018), sociologists study group interactions, groups, social interactions, and societies, from personal to small groups to big groups. OpenStax writes that sociologists study all the levels and aspects of a society, a group of people living in a defined geographic place. Sociologists who work at the micro-level study individual interactions and small groups, whereas those at the micro-level analysis study trends between and among societies and large groups (OpenStax, 2018). Notably, a micro-level sociological study may study accepted conversational rules in different groups like adolescents, while a macro-level study may examine how family structures have changed in the United States.
How Family Structures Have Changed Over the Years to the Present Day
Family structures have changed over the years. According to Hammond, Cheney & Pearsey (2021), in the U.S. during the 1900s, many families had three generations living together, including grandparents, parents, and children. By 2012, only 4.6% of families had this type of structure in their household (Hammond, Cheney & Pearsey, 2021). Today, the nuclear family is the preferred family, having a father, mother, and children. The nuclear family has also evolved to include single-parent families, which may have been created by the death of a spouse, divorce, or unwed motherhood (Hammond, Cheney & Pearsey, 2021).
The current family structure also has a blended family, often created through remarriage, and includes step-siblings, step-parents, or both. According to Hammond, Cheney & Pearsey (2021), a family is considered an extended family if it exceeds the two-generation blended or nuclear family.
Another trend in the contemporary family structure is cohabitation. Cohabitation is a marriage pattern where a woman and a man share a residence and have a sexual relationship but are not married (OpenStax, 2018). In a traditional blended or nuclear family, couples had to be married to live together and have children. Now, 39% of the Pew Research Centers research of 2010 stated that marriage is becoming obsolete and cohabitation more acceptable. In 2011, the cohabitation rate had increased by 13% since 2009 (OpenStax, 2018).
Furthermore, family structure in the 21st century has extended to include same-sex couples. In 2000, the U.S. Census Bureau reported 594,000 same-sex couples (OpenStax, 2018). Homosexuality has been embraced in households, breaking the simplicity of family structures that existed in the 1900s.
References
Hammond, R., Cheney, P., & Pearsey, R. (2021). Sociology of the Family.
OpenStax (2018). Introduction to Sociology 2e. Texas: Rice University.
