QUESTION
How does culture influence cross-border M&A activity? Illustrate this relationship using examples, either real (even anecdotal if you have any) or conceptual. How do similar and dissimilar cultures affect pre- and post-merger performance?
ANSWER
1. Introduction
Organizational culture will not be the main focus of the study since its impact on M&A activity has been studied in depth in management literature. A holistic case study of the merger between the German company Daimler-Benz and US firm Chrysler will be used since this is considered a classic example of clash of national cultures. The inductive methodology used in the Daimler-Chrysler case will be initially used in the attempt to separate national culture from organizational culture and study its direct impact on M&A activity. Any findings and conclusions drawn from this case study will be initially tested against any theory provided in management literature. The aim in the end is to possibly come up with a new model explaining the impact of culture on M&A activity, which will be a useful framework for managers in the future.
In this research paper, the focus will be on studying the importance of culture in M&A activity. The objective of the paper is to separate the impact of national culture from organizational culture on M&A activity. The distinction between the two is important since national culture is considered an unmanageable force a firm encounters when it operates in a foreign environment, while organizational culture is a manageable force the firm can manipulate in order to coordinate and integrate activities when working with a potential partner.
Globalization has led to ever-increasing business activity across national borders. This has fueled the pace of cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&A) in today’s global economy. Culture has been identified as a critical factor which has a significant impact on the outcome of international business activity. Cross-border M&A is an activity that takes place when a company from one country merges or takes over the assets of a company in another country.
1.1 Importance of Culture in Cross-Border M&A
Despite the prevalence of literature regarding the role culture plays in business, in particular cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&A), it remains a relatively unexplored and underestimated factor in comparison to other theoretical lenses such as synergy or agency theory. It is widely recognized that national cultural differences are to be found in the differing thoughts, actions, assumptions, and a range of behavioral and material artifacts (Hofstede, 2002); all of which are key components of a society. That said, the fragmented and multidisciplinary nature of cultural theory development to date, it has yet to be fully integrated into M&A research and practice. However, there are various instances within the literature that infer assumptions to the effects of culture on M&A. For example, it is often cited as a reason for failure (Cartwright and Cooper, 1992), a costly barrier to be overcome during post-merger integration (Haspeslagh and Jemison, 1991), or a factor that should be included in the pre-acquisition screening process (Prahalad and Doz, 1987). While these examples bestow importance, it is not sufficient evidence to unequivocally prove it as a critical factor in M&A, and to date there is no defined framework or model that seeks to understand culture with respect to an entire M&A process. This is not to say cultural impact is always negative; a recent study by Stahl and Voigt (2008) identified that high cultural differences between two companies could lead to a lesser likelihood of bidder overpayment in an acquisition deal. However, the context of this result was within financial terms rather than the long-term integration process, and as aforementioned, this is not a widely explored area. With this considered, on the basis that culture is a central aspect of national identity, it can be viewed as a key and relevant aspect to any process involving two differing nations or organizations. This does not necessarily imply that any M&A between two differing national organizations will be heavily influenced by culture, for culture is a very broad and subjective concept, and there are varying levels of cross-border M&A; hence, the theory suggests that cultural impact will vary depending on the circumstance.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
The primary goal of this project is trying to figure out the impact of national and organisational culture on cross-border mergers and acquisitions, in the hope that better understanding of the influence of culture can help in avoiding some of the obvious pitfalls, and lead to successful integration which is the ultimate mark of a successful M&A activity. As this is an exploratory study, no hypothesis is put forward as it seeks to find new insights and information in the hope of forming a new theory. This has led to much of the research being in a more qualitative manner, although many questions do lend themselves to quantitative analysis. Measures of national culture provide a good base to look at the cultural issues, and matched-pair studies of companies involved in M&A activity can give good indications of the influence of culture on M&A and what actually occurs during the process. By looking at the level and nature of the increased M&A activity in the last 15 years, from the standpoints of both acquiring company and target firms, insights can be gained as to why the increase in M&A activity has led to mixed results, and how culture may be a key factor regarding this. Being an exploratory study, no specific culture dimension or issue is singled out, rather it looks at broad overall influence that culture may have at the national and organisational levels. A literature review is done on the failures and success stories of M&A activity, and there have been many case studies that offer comparisons such as two companies of different nationalities, one which has succeeded in M&A activity and one which has not. This provides much insightful data for the matched-pair studies and goes towards meeting the goals of this research.
1.3 Methodology
Another belief is that the culture of a society can be described by the values and norms present (Tayeb, 2000). Although it is possible to measure culture directly with various means, indirect measurement is probably the most effective, possibly using a society’s political or legal systems as a function of the culture it represents. Due to the breadth of values, norms, and the multi-level nature of culture, measuring the exact effects of culture on M&A activity is problematic and has only been extensively attempted by the very biggest firms in simulated training exercises. This encompasses a number of variables that would be best done by multiple means and at various levels, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the various issues involved. This too is evident throughout the research, as nearly all the micro-level events that created problems during M&A could always be related back to a difference of values or norms.
The research’s underpinning philosophy is the belief that culture affects behavior. This belief was supported by Yalcintas (1981), Guy and Beddow (1983), and Seth (1986). Yalcintas suggested that M&As were of an international nature and therefore present many problems in terms of differences in national policies, mentalities, and ways of doing business. Guy and Beddow and Seth also suggested that the variables of nationality and culture were of major import in M&A activity and provide one of the better frameworks within which to understand M&A behavior (Guy and Beddow, 1983; Seth, 1986 cited in Cartwright and Cooper, 1993). This belief was held throughout the EFA and case study and remained evident in the various responses received during the research, and some of the contradictions and practical problems that were found; each of which was possible to explain by cross-cultural differences. If we consider Schneider and Barsoux’s argument that cultural variation causes different mental programming, which creates ambiguity in cross-cultural encounters (Schneider and Barsoux, 1997), i.e. different behavioral patterns and an expectancy of behavior between parties in the M&A, the importance of effects of national factors and culture in M&A become more transparent.
II. Essay Summary
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1 Definition of Culture
2.2 Cultural Dimensions
2.2.1 Power Distance
2.2.2 Individualism vs. Collectivism
2.2.3 Masculinity vs. Femininity
2.2.4 Uncertainty Avoidance
2.2.5 Long-Term Orientation
3. Cultural Influence on Pre-Merger Performance
3.1 Cultural Due Diligence
3.2 Cultural Compatibility Assessment
3.3 Communication and Integration Challenges
3.4 Leadership and Decision-Making Styles
3.5 Employee Motivation and Engagement
4. Cultural Influence on Post-Merger Performance
4.1 Organizational Culture Alignment
4.2 Change Management Strategies
4.3 Employee Retention and Talent Management
4.4 Knowledge Transfer and Learning
4.5 Performance Measurement and Control Systems
5. Case Studies
5.1 Cross-Border M&A Success Stories
5.2 Cross-Border M&A Failures
5.3 Lessons Learned
6. Conclusion
6.1 Summary of Findings
6.2 Implications for Cross-Border M&A Practitioners
6.3 Recommendations for Future Research

Question
Which learning theories and principles do you think are most useful to the advanced practice nurse (APN) in providing high quality health care to clients, and why?
Submission Instructions:
Your initial post should be at least 500 words, formatted and cited in current APA style with support from at least 2 academic sources.  Your initial post is worth 8 points.

Answer
1. Introduction
The aim of this book is to trace the history of and examine the effectiveness of specific theories and principles for learning. As the first step in our research, a review of the literature on teaching and learning was conducted to understand the full scope of APN’s role as an educator. Much of the research on teaching and learning in advanced practice has been conducted on medical residents and physicians, so we have included literature from the medical field when the education context is pertinent. A small portion of the literature reviewed was found to be specific to advanced practice nursing education, and even less specifically related to nurse practitioner education. Therefore, some literature pertaining to undergraduate nursing and APN relevant clinical teaching was included as principles of learning are often transferable to different educational audiences. Kahn and Nauta state that often times health care providers must act as educators to bring about changes in patient behavior and clinical outcomes. As such, it is important for APNs to not only understand how adults learn but to have a thorough understanding of the teaching-learning process and be competent in specific educational strategies if they are to bring about changes in patient outcomes. This increasing focus on nurse practitioner-led patient education and sustained behavior change led us to include educational literature of learning theories and teaching strategies. Finally, we wanted to learn from the medical education community and other health professions about what has been effective in teaching and learning to apply similar strategies for educators in advanced practice nursing. This information was then used to narrow the scope of our study to select theories and principles that have the most impact and are most applicable to nurse practitioner education. Steps in theory development and testing have been integrated in the examination of specific theories.
1.1 Importance of Learning Theories and Principles for APNs
Learning theories can provide strategies to manage information and critically appraise which resources will be beneficial to their own learning and ultimately improve patient care. Finally, in understanding learning theory, the APN can enhance their own educational role. With the growth of nursing graduate programs, an increasing number of APNs are now in the position to educate future nurses. Knowledge of learning theories, curriculum design, and teaching strategies are critical to this role and fundamental if the educator is to develop competent practitioners who will improve patient care.
Knowledge of learning theory will provide scaffolding to assess individual patients’ learning needs, create an environment that is conducive to learning, build patient motivation, and implement effective teaching strategies. In addition to patient education, learning theory can guide the APN in their own learning. With the rapid expansion of new medical knowledge and virtual explosion of information resources, it is becoming increasingly important for APNs to be lifelong learners.
Knowledge and understanding of learning theories are critical for the APN as it provides the foundation for the strategies and techniques that can be employed to facilitate learning. With diagnoses being more complex, care delivery more diverse, and patient education a common practice, it is imperative that APNs have the skills to enable patients to learn and change behaviors in the healthcare setting.
Descriptive theories describe learning, teaching, and development and are the most concrete of the three. Therefore, they are easier to test through assessment. Prescriptive theories provide strategies or interventions to bring about change in a prescribed direction and have a good chance of being tested. Explanatory theories are so complex that it is uncertain as to whether or not they can be tested (B. Young, 1998).
Learning is an experience of obtaining new knowledge or developing existing knowledge, skills, and abilities and is vital to advanced practice nursing (APN) educational paradigms. Various learning theories attempt to explain this complex phenomenon. There are numerous classifications of learning theories. However, for the purpose of this discussion, the focus will be on three main types: descriptive, prescriptive, and explanatory.
1.2 Purpose of the Study
This research was designed to provide a framework for applying educational theory to an educational program for advanced practice nurses (APNs). Administration of health care is changing dramatically as a result of shifts in demography and policy. This climate requires development of innovative educational programs designed to prepare APNs for new roles in delivering health care to the public. In the last several decades, education has moved from the idea that teaching is simply content delivery to an understanding that learners need to be active participants in the learning process (Knowles, 1980; Eraut, 2000). This change has led to the development of a number of theories to guide the design of learning environments and activities. However, many educators are not familiar with these theories and have difficulty translating them into practice. At the same time, there has been an explosion in research and theory development in the field of nursing education, much of which parallels educational theory outside the discipline. Yet, much of this knowledge has not been consolidated or organized into a framework that is useful for curriculum development. Learning theories and principles are the building blocks for models of effective instruction. We propose that a better understanding of learning theories and principles can help educators develop an innovative curriculum to prepare APNs for complex health care roles in today’s society.
2. Behaviorism
2.1 Classical Conditioning
2.2 Operant Conditioning
2.3 Observational Learning
3. Cognitive Theory
3.1 Information Processing
3.2 Schema Theory
3.3 Problem-Based Learning
4. Social Learning Theory
4.1 Vicarious Learning
4.2 Self-Efficacy
4.3 Modeling
5. Constructivism
5.1 Experiential Learning
5.2 Inquiry-Based Learning
5.3 Collaborative Learning
6. Humanistic Theory
6.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
6.2 Person-Centered Care
6.3 Motivation and Self-Determination
7. Adult Learning Theory
7.1 Andragogy
7.2 Self-Directed Learning
7.3 Transformative Learning
8. Application of Learning Theories in APN Practice
8.1 Enhancing Patient Education
8.2 Improving Clinical Decision-Making
8.3 Promoting Evidence-Based Practice

Question
Within the Discussion Board area, write 400–600 words that respond to the following questions with your thoughts, ideas, and comments. This will be the foundation for future discussions by your classmates. Be substantive and clear, and use examples to reinforce your ideas.
Over the years, there has been much debate over the classification of employment-at-will employees. Employment-at-will is a term that refers to the protection that is applied to the employment relationship, such that the employer or the employee has the right to terminate the employment relationship at any time. There are different modifications to employment-at-will that vary at the state level. With your classmates, please discuss the following:
Does employment-at-will have better protections for employees or employers? Why or why not?
Choose a state and describe its modifications to employment-at-will. Do you agree with these modifications? Why or why not?

Answer
1. Introduction
This doctrine of discharge has been the most controversial of all employment-at-will issues. Its principal contribution has been to narrowly limit lawsuits for wrongful termination. Discharging an employee for a particularly bad reason does not make it wrongful discharge. According to one author, the reason might be “so bad, so hypocritical, or so small minded, that only the judge or the jury can be trusted to a fair decision.” This is not in today’s legal system. While the judge or jury might have the authority to decide the issue, there must first be an establishing a valid claim or cause of action. Employment-at-will supporters believe that the rule adequately balances the rights of employers and employees, without legislative limits on discharges.
The rule in employment-at-will states that if an employee has no specific term of employment, the employer can fire the employee for good cause, no cause, and even cause morally wrong, without being liable for wrongful discharge. The employee is granted the same legal right; he can quit on the spot, for good cause, no cause, and cause morally wrong. In general, the employment-at-will doctrine should not affect the employee’s unemployment compensation rights.
The doctrine of employment-at-will is a legal rule that was established in the nineteenth century. It has been adopted by all fifty states. According to this doctrine, either the employer or the employee may end the employment relationship at any time, with or without cause, giving rise to a claim for damages. Typically, courts have said that the employment relationship can be treated as “at-will” unless the employee can show the existence of an employment contract to the contrary.
1.1 Definition of employment-at-will
The term “employment-at-will” derives from American common law and it means that an employee can be dismissed by an employer for any reason or without having to establish a wrongful cause and without notice, as long as the reason is not illegal (e.g. firing a worker because of their race, religion, or gender) and the employer does not have a contract with the employee which specifies how and under what circumstances termination can occur. The doctrine is compatible with the idea of an unfettered labor market, where firms and workers transact at arm’s length. This is undoubtedly the US labor market in many areas, particularly those involving unskilled workers. At-will employment still exists to a large extent in most American states and is important in promoting economic growth in the nation. This will be elaborated on in section 1.2, which discusses the importance of employment-at-will. The other forms of employment are “for cause” and “for term”. In a “for cause” employment, the employee can only be terminated for a specific reason. This usually only occurs when there is a collective bargaining agreement between a firm and a union. This is due to the fact that unions require employment security for their members, and in return for conceding flexibility in the labor market have negotiated contracts which make it difficult for firms to lay off or terminate employees. The most extreme example of “for term” employment is that of a tenured professor at a university, who has essentially a lifetime employment agreement and can only be dismissed for gross misconduct or financial exigency on behalf of the employer.
1.2 Importance of employment-at-will protections
Courts have often spoken of the doctrine of employment-at-will in terms of a “default rule”. That is, in the absence of an express agreement to the contrary, it will be presumed that the employer and employee intended the employment relationship to be a short-term one, terminable at any time by either party. In this respect, employment-at-will can be contrasted with a contract for a fixed term of employment, where, because of the agreement of the parties, it can be a breach of contract to terminate the employment before the expiration of the term. If it is to be analyzed as a default rule, then the starting point is to examine the respective rights of the employer and employee that will be gained, lost, or compromised by moving away from (or contracting out of) that rule. This naturally leads to the question of just what employment-at-will protections are. An alternative approach to understanding the meaning of employment in terms of default rules is to say that the choice of at-will term or fixed term of employment is itself an exercise of freedom of contract. This approach would require showing that there was some impediment or background factor which made it difficult for employers and employees to contract for short-term revocable employment, and that a change to less restrictive rules was the result of a conscious policy decision. An example of doing this type of analysis in another area of labor and employment law is the work in the US on right-to-work legislation. This showed that the implementation of laws protecting union security employment terms was the result of state action, so that a change to a less union-restrictive regime of employment terms required a repealing or invalidation of the laws. We can barely adopt the approach, but the previous study of default rules still serves as a useful foundation for understanding what employment-at-will protections are, even if the intention was not to move more towards such employment terms.
2. Protections for Employees
2.1 Right to terminate employment
2.2 Protection against wrongful termination
2.3 Legal remedies for employees
3. Protections for Employers
3.1 Right to terminate employment
3.2 Protection against employee misconduct
3.3 Flexibility in managing workforce
4. State Modifications to Employment-at-will
4.1 State X’s modifications
4.1.1 Overview of State X’s modifications
4.1.2 Specific changes to employment-at-will
4.2 Evaluation of State X’s modifications
4.2.1 Agreement with State X’s modifications
4.2.2 Disagreement with State X’s modifications
5. Conclusion

Questions
1)  From your perspective what are the major ethical and legal challenges and risks for abuse that we must keep top of mind in the collection, management, and use of information and technologies overall—and in the public arena specifically? 
2)  Suggest guidelines to help prevent unethical uses of data in general and especially in the public sector.

Answer
1. Ethical Challenges
The rapid development of information technology has led to situations of increased uncertainty and the definition on how existing rights apply to new technologies. This has led to a consideration of an information society framework for the protection of the individual in regards to privacy, data security, accountability, and the right to access on the occasion of the widespread collection and identification of personal information.
Privacy is a right that individuals and groups can have control over the extent, timing and circumstances of sharing themselves with others. The freedom from unreasonable and unwarranted intrusion into our private lives is now recognized as a fundamental human right. Data security is the right of individuals and organizations to be assured that their data and the systems processing it are secure and not accessible to third parties. Measures used to ensure data security include confidentiality (limiting access to information), integrity (maintenance of accuracy and consistency of data over its life), authenticity, and privacy.
Concerns about ethical implications of information and technology are spread out within this field, but the main concerns are concentrated around issues regarding individual rights, fairness, accountability, and the impact on society. What information should a person or an organization have the right to keep to themselves? What data about others should they be required to share? What is an equitable distribution of resources and access? How can the rights and interests of various individuals and stakeholder groups be safeguarded? And just who is being well served by information technology?
1.1. Privacy concerns
Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves and thereby reveal information selectively. The essay’s focus on privacy centers on the increasing move by governments and business organizations to use computers to store data about individuals. The computer has led to a growing move towards the use of personal data as computers are very effective record keepers. Using the Internet, vast amounts of personal data can be retrieved and even more personal data can be gleaned, often without the knowledge of the person concerned. This often results in the inference of information about an individual who would prefer to remain anonymous. The storing and accessing of personal data can result in damaging disclosures about an individual. There are numerous ways in which privacy stands to be eroded in the information age. For instance, electronic surveillance using powerful surveillance technologies has great potential for invasions of privacy. Data matching is a technique used to compare two sets of data, such as the list of names on a payroll and the list of names receiving welfare benefits, in order to determine if there is any correlation between the two. If data is stored on an individual in both these sets of data, it is highly likely that there will be a disclosure of personal information in such a scenario. Though data matching can be a useful tool, it can threaten privacy and in some cases can lead to discrimination. National ID cards can also have a dramatic impact on privacy with centralized databases to store personal information. An ID card often becomes a requirement to access services and without it, an individual may be denied access to services to prevent the use of someone else’s card. This may create a situation of ID apartheid for the disadvantaged who are less likely to retain possession of a card. With technology constantly advancing, there are now ID cards being developed with biometric information such as facial details and fingerprints. These details, which are unique to each individual, bring about new privacy issues. High-quality photographic and digital imaging technologies allow for the covert and high-quality capture of someone else’s biometric details, and if this information is ever captured and stored about a person who is unaware, there has been a serious privacy violation.
1.2. Data security risks
Data is a representation of the world. In some cases it is used to model complex systems or to assist in decision making. For example, climate data is used to model future climate states. Market trends are used to make financial predictions. In these cases it is often difficult to verify the data thoroughly and in general, there are many different possible uses of data. Often individual interpretations of data may vary from the actual context or intent of the data. In the case of climate models, it may be impossible to foresee whether or not an interpretation of model output is correct given that climate states are inherently unpredictable and the model itself could contain errors. High impact decisions can be made on uncertain data that can lead to the perpetuation of errors and biases. This is known as methodological bias. In other cases, the data itself may carry biases or other undesirable assumptions. An example would be the use of race as an identifier in medical decision making. Failing to account for social constructs of race and genetic variation can lead to incorrect inferences from the data and ultimately, race may become a deciding factor in choices of treatment. These cases show a variety of ways in which data and its use can lead to biased outcomes. Often the bias is unintended and is usually a result of the neglect of ethical considerations in the early stages of information system design. Owing to this, bias is an issue that overlaps with many other ethical challenges of information and technology.
Another ethical challenge involves data security. In a digital society, the collection, flow, and processing of information is done electronically. This may result in theft, unauthorized access, loss of information, and the like [23]. The security and integrity of data is essential to any information system. For example, electronic health records are becoming a standard feature of medical practices; the information in these records must remain confidential and available only to those with authorized access. Despite this, electronic health records are subject to hacking and other forms of information loss. Data breaches can result in severe consequences for affected individuals and organizations. Loss of personal information can result in identity theft or in severe cases, it may pose as a threat to personal and public safety. The loss of financial information can have harmful effects on an organization’s clients and result in an organization’s loss of revenue. Steps must be taken to ensure that the privacy and integrity of data is maintained. This means that information systems must be resistant to various forms of threat, quick to recover from data loss, and must provide fail-safes for information in transit. Making systems “highly secure” in this context is easier said than done and is not always cost effective or convenient. This is a risk-benefit issue that will be a recurring theme in dealing with ethical challenges of information and technology.
1.3. Unintended bias in algorithms
Mentions about solving the problem of bias in algorithms through ethical behavior might seem naive in the light of quick movements in the nature of production and use of algorithms. Efforts to increase ethical behavior in algorithm design may not solve the more fundamental problem of how to specify what we want, to a system, without having undesirable effects in the real world. This is a problem that is only going to get more acute. As the parts of our lives that we hand over to data analysis increase, the systems being used are going to come to be seen as controlling the opportunities open to people. A famous example, from the early days of web advertising, is that of an optician who discovered that his ads were not being shown to people in high income neighborhoods, because the analysis of who would be willing to spend money on glasses had incorrectly identified the target group. At the time all this meant was that the optician got low rates for ad space, but in general such behavior can have damaging effects and can be hard to identify, especially as it might not be clear to human decision makers what the system is doing. An improperly specified algorithm for sorting CVs according to quality destroyed prospects for minority job applicants in the US by generalizing from the fact that some of the worst CVs were from minority graduates. In other cases, a system can potentiate existing social biases by affecting decisions that are based on its predictions, as is feared in criminal sentencing if judges start to use the output of risk assessment algorithms.
1.4. Potential for discrimination
The development of data science technology for the supporting of decision making, automatically conducted by sophisticated learning software called algorithm, should bring benefits to individuals. In addition, with the employment of data science in numerous fields now will give assessment and decision for individual’s better than hiring explicit human that may involve personal feeling of the assessor. Despite that, algorithm may yield certain decisions that are merely based on sensitive attributes, not because of the relevance with a person’s ability, skill, or other legitimate reasons. Machine learning algorithm is designed to learn from data and optimize an objective function to find a correct answer, thus the relation between an input (data regarding an individual) into an output (assessment or decision) sometimes it’s difficult to be detected and it’s called as indirect discrimination. This is a new problem in comparison to the pre-data science discrimination such as in employment opportunity, housing, provision of goods or services, and education, thus far legislation in United States, Canada and European Union do not directly proscribe indirect discrimination. Simulation study by Mitchell and Brynjolfsson (2019) reveals that altering the vocabulary in job ad postings can influence the click rates of majority group and minority group of race, where the part of minority group can be less interested in the job advertisement. This is an utilization of artificial intelligence to assess potential employees, with machine learning algorithm learning from the ad postings to the behavioral data of potential employees, it’s very likely the algorithm will replicate the ad employer’s message to the assessment result on minority group in hope to find individuals possessed the attributes shown in active ad respondents, which in reality it’s a mind conditioning in order to get job at a disadvantages price. This may eventually cause litigation to the employer if the ad respondents succeed to prove the causation of an adverse action. Another example is a case of race and ethnicity prediction using facial recognition. Although this research aims to help minority group in preventing discrimination and improving health care and social services quality, a tool that simply based on prediction without prevention to avoid creating biased results still has controversial ethical issues. High rate of predictive error can cause classification into the wrong group, and it’s not impossible the researcher release this tool first to the small number of people without noticing the tool’s effectiveness to the actual benefit. Nevertheless, it’s a decline proposal from a vendor who develops a data science system to equalize the prediction error rate with a prevailing rate. This means the system only works to a case with a crime prevalence at certain race, but this raises the question does minority group will forever have a burden for crime prevalence indication and is it true that it will benefit them.
1.5. Lack of transparency in data practices
Whether the data is being shared or analyzed, there is often a lack of clarity or oversight of the data handling and processing chain. Ultimately, many organizations want to keep their data practices undisclosed to gain a competitive advantage, or in some cases, to prevent the implementation of effective public scrutiny or consumer resistance. But often the practice is ambiguous even to those directly involved. Data is a valuable asset and its value is increased when it is shared, however data sharing practices can result in a loss of control over data once it has been released. For example, in the NHS IT outsourcing deals of the early 2000s, it was identified that the contract specifics had been unclear and this had allowed for widespread data sharing and commingling between companies and healthcare organizations, showing that even in a highly regulated industry, lack of clarity in data practices can result in a concession of data control. This loss of control can compromise the individual’s privacy and rights regarding the data in question. Often it is unclear what the data will be used for and whether there is potential for a change of data ownership that might result in future usage that is unrelated to the initial instance of data collection. In contrast to this, some instances of lack of transparency are less a result of unclear intentions and more to do with insufficient technological development in methods for data tracking and monitoring. With the increase in complexity of data storage structures and the rise of distributed systems, it is not always easy for an organization to map the journey of its own data and ensure that it does not lose oversight of its location and usage. While this benefits the data in question as it essentially becomes ‘lost’, this can be a disadvantage for the organization or individual who owns the data, as they may be unaware of any breaches of data protection legislations and their data rights.
2. Legal Challenges
2.1. Compliance with data protection laws
2.2. Intellectual property rights
2.3. Jurisdictional issues
2.4. Liability for data breaches
2.5. Legal implications of data misuse
3. Risks for Abuse in the Public Arena
3.1. Manipulation of public opinion
3.2. Surveillance and invasion of privacy
3.3. Targeted advertising and marketing
3.4. Exploitation of personal information
3.5. Cyberbullying and online harassment
4. Guidelines for Preventing Unethical Uses of Data
4.1. Clear data governance policies
4.2. Informed consent and opt-out options
4.3. Regular data audits and risk assessments
4.4. Ethical training and awareness programs
4.5. Collaboration with regulatory bodies
5. Guidelines for Preventing Unethical Uses of Data in the Public Sector
5.1. Transparent data collection and use practices
5.2. Strict adherence to data protection laws
5.3. Independent oversight and accountability mechanisms
5.4. Safeguards against data breaches and leaks
5.5. Public engagement and participation in decision-making processes

Question
factors to consider when starting up a domestic aviation operation
answer
1. Introduction
When starting up a domestic aviation operation/public transportation service, it is essential to consider all the factors that will affect the operation, whether large or small. This document focuses on the factors the typical air carrier should consider. It is common for one to only think about the certification process and rules and regulations that must be followed to start an air carrier, but these are not the only factors that need to be well understood. Factors concerning the markets to be served, the need for the service, the competitive environment, the economics of the new operation, and the type of operation to be conducted must all be considered. This document is designed to help the new operator understand all these factors and how they will affect the certification process and the operation in general. This document is not a standalone guide to certification or Part 135 operations. It’s simply a detailed explanation for what must be considered along the way. Because the certification process is so involved, many times the operator will lose sight of the operation in an effort to meet FAA requirements. This explains why the author chose to write this document with regards to factors an operator must consider in lieu of the certification process itself. Factors concerning the FAA requirements will sometimes be invoked to better understand how they will affect the given factor, but a detailed explanation on the FAA rules and regulations concerning a specific subject is outside the scope of this document.
1.1. Purpose of the Document
This document is intended for people contemplating starting up an aviation concern. This is a wide ranging audience and the document will not cover every eventuality. A person starting up an operation in a single building at a non-towered airport flying one aircraft needs a far less complex operation than a regional operator flying into a dozen cities. However, this document should provide a framework from which a project plan tailored to the specific operation can be constructed.
This document has been assembled in order to illustrate at a high level the process of starting up a new aviation concern. It is aimed at individuals who want to know what is involved in aviation operations but who do not necessarily have a background in aviation. This document addresses not only the aviation specific issues but also will touch on general business and project management principles.
1.2. Scope of the Document
The document is quite detailed and some aspects may not be relevant to all readers. It is structured in a manner that it can be readily determined what information is relevant and what can be overlooked. The document is broken down into specific aircraft operation phases, being pre-start up, start-up, setting up the initial operation, expansion of operation, and winding down an operation. Each phase identifies key objectives and possible issues that can occur. Readers can determine if the information is relevant to them based on the phases of their operation and how far they plan to take the aircraft operation. This is particularly relevant to operators working for AOCs where various job position changes can mean involvement in different phases of aircraft operation. Although it is recommended that all information is read at least once!
While it is obvious that an aviation operation needs an aircraft to fly, the first stage of planning could be the deciding factor as to why an operation is successful or not. Ambitious aviation operations have failed to get off the ground because of poor planning, a lack of clear objectives, no identified target market, insufficient resource analysis, and so it continues. Though it is preferable to enter the aviation industry with a business already established, these decisions are no less important for an individual purchasing an aircraft for private use. This document aims to cater for aviation operations looking to move into the aviation industry through to the established small aviation enterprise. The intention is to provide guidance on all the various phases of aircraft operation, identifying possible pitfalls and providing solutions.
1.3. Background Information
With an understanding of the costs, commitment, and competition involved, and armed with the right resources and information, starting an airline can be a viable and rewarding venture.
An SIA study has shown that it is very difficult to change a customer’s existing loyalty to an established carrier. This illustrates the high level of competition and threat of substitute products in the industry. Failing to consider some of these aspects can lead to a new airline’s quick demise. New airlines tend to do best where they can meet a demand that is not being fully satisfied by existing services. A market analysis will help to reveal this and will allow a new airline to evaluate where and how it can be competitive.
The aviation industry is known for having a few dominant players. This is due to the effectiveness of mergers and acquisitions. Even some of the smaller airlines are actually subsidiaries of the larger ones. This suggests that competition in the industry is fierce and likely to be directed towards a new entrant. New airlines often fail to fully understand direct and indirect competition. It is also important for these new airlines to understand the needs and limitations of their prospective customers. These are varied and are usually based upon cost, frequency, journey time, comfort, and access.
An aviation company operates aircraft to transport passengers and/or goods. This is the primary source of income for the airline. As one of the most complex and costly industries, it is to be expected that the number of airlines that start up and fail is relatively high. It is necessary to consider the idea of establishing an airline very carefully and to be aware of the numerous costs and potential pitfalls that may be encountered.
2. Legal and Regulatory Factors
2.1. Compliance with Aviation Regulations
2.2. Licensing and Permits
2.3. Insurance Requirements
3. Financial Considerations
3.1. Startup Costs
3.2. Funding Sources
3.3. Revenue Generation
4. Market Analysis
4.1. Target Market Identification
4.2. Competitor Analysis
4.3. Demand Forecasting
5. Operational Factors
5.1. Fleet Selection and Acquisition
5.2. Staffing and Training Requirements
5.3. Maintenance and Safety Procedures
6. Infrastructure and Facilities
6.1. Airport Selection and Negotiations
6.2. Hangar or Terminal Facilities
6.3. Ground Support Equipment
7. Marketing and Branding
7.1. Brand Identity Development
7.2. Advertising and Promotional Strategies
7.3. Customer Relationship Management
8. Technology and Systems
8.1. Aviation Management Software
8.2. Reservation and Ticketing Systems
8.3. Communication and Navigation Equipment
9. Risk Management
9.1. Safety and Security Measures
9.2. Emergency Response Planning
9.3. Contingency Plans
10. Conclusion
10.1. Summary of Key Considerations
10.2. Next Steps