Second Amendment Rights -Gun Control

 Introduction

OK, so what is the Second Amendment? One might infer its definition from the words themselves, but it might be tough to interpret depending on individual or group viewpoints. The Second Amendment was adopted on December 15, 1791, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights. These rights were included to prevent an overly powerful government. But with wars between countries and the Civil War, the idea began to morph in two different ways. The idea of protecting the state and the idea of protecting the people. This posed a problem as it allowed for individual interpretations of the Second Amendment. This led to numerous court battles and laws between state and federal governments. Fast-forward to present day and we have a convoluted mess of federal laws, state laws, and court rulings which have made the Second Amendment indefinable. This complex is further confounded by the idea that culture and different regions of the United States have different ideas on gun control. By taking in these conflicting beliefs, we can conclude the following statement to be the modern definition of the Second Amendment: “The Second Amendment is a person’s right to possess a firearm for traditionally lawful purposes such as self-defense and hunting. The right is further reinforced by a state’s right to bear arms to protect against an overreaching Federal Government.” This complex and heavily disputed Second Amendment will be the key issue as to whether the right for guns goes too far.

The history of the United States. It is safe to say, we, as American citizens, have read about the civil rights movement’s period. These events throughout history have had a significant impact on the way the American citizens live today. It affected the way we live in terms of education, religion, and the right to vote. Two of the most well-known changes that have made a significant impact are the changes in the criminal justice system and the right to own a firearm. In the criminal justice system, changes such as Miranda rights and police techniques have changed the way law is done today. Another significant impact would be the change of the right to own a firearm. This right is guaranteed by the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution written in 1776: “A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.” Today, the debate for this amendment has sparked significant interest in the rules of firearms in the United States. These rules affect ordinary citizens and firearm dealers. And now, we are currently struggling with the idea of whether the Second Amendment complex does more harm than good. This may lead to the tweaking of firearm rules or a possible revision of the entire concept of Second Amendment rights.

1.1. Definition of Second Amendment Rights

This view was not always the view held by US courts. Up until the mid-20th century, US courts and attorneys felt that the Second Amendment protected a state’s right to form and keep an armed National Guard unit. This changed in the 1960s with an increase in the amount of crime in the United States, and a 200 year old law right in to challenge. This all led to a modern view of the Second Amendment to protect the right of individuals to own firearms for private use.

In June 26, 2008, The Supreme Court issued a landmark decision, ending almost seventy years of confusion over the meaning of the Second Amendment. In District of Columbia v. Heller, the Court held that the Second Amendment protects an individual’s right to possess a firearm, unconnected to service in a militia. In a 5-4 decision, the Court stated that the Amendment’s prefatory clause regarding the necessity of a militia was irrelevant to the right identified in the operative clause. The Court found that the operative clause was clear and afforded private citizens the right to possess firearms. This decision has since been critically important to the argument over the Second Amendment in the modern day.

The Second Amendment states that: “A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.” (second amendment to the constitution) Many pro-gun organizations take this literally. They say that the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed upon. The National Rifle Association, a major player in United States gun rights politics, makes frequent reference to the Second Amendment in its efforts to block new gun control.

The true meaning of the Second Amendment has been a key issue in American politics. Its meaning has been the subject of many interpretations through the years. Many in the pro-gun movement view the amendment as a collective right, whereby individual citizens arm themselves to protect the nation or their state. Those who are against the pro-gun movement view the Second Amendment as a simple rights issue. They view it as the right for the National Guard to bear arms, not the individual citizen. This argument has been going on for many years, on what the true meaning of the Second Amendment is.

1.2. Historical Background of Second Amendment

In December 1791, the same year that the Second Amendment was adopted, the state of Virginia also adopted a Declaration of Rights. This document clearly defined an individual’s right to own a gun. It states: “That a well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defense of a free state; that standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided as dangerous to liberty; and that in all cases the military should be under strict subordination to civil power. … No free man shall ever be debarred the use of arms.” This document is very similar to the Second Amendment and helps define exactly what the founding fathers meant. Today many people are in the dark to what the Second Amendment actually means. The historical context and true meaning of the Second Amendment is what the courts must use to interpret it.

The right to bear arms in the United States is a right guaranteed by the Second Amendment of the Constitution. This amendment, adopted in 1791, specifically states: “A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.” Contrary to popular belief, the Second Amendment does not directly address an individual’s right to own a gun. It is often viewed as a collective right of state militias and does not address the issue of gun ownership for non-military purposes. However, today the Second Amendment is hotly debated and both sides argue over the true meaning of this law.

2. Proponents of Gun Control

2.1. Arguments for Stricter Gun Control Laws

2.1.1. Reducing Gun Violence

2.1.2. Preventing Mass Shootings

2.1.3. Enhancing Public Safety

2.2. Organizations Advocating for Gun Control

2.2.1. Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence

2.2.2. Everytown for Gun Safety

3. Opponents of Gun Control

3.1. Arguments against Stricter Gun Control Laws

3.1.1. Protection of Individual Rights

3.1.2. Preserving the Second Amendment

3.1.3. Self-Defense and Deterrence

3.2. Organizations Supporting Gun Rights

3.2.1. National Rifle Association (NRA)

3.2.2. Gun Owners of America (GOA)

4. Current Gun Control Policies

4.1. Federal Gun Control Laws

4.1.1. Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act

4.1.2. National Firearms Act

4.2. State Gun Control Laws

4.2.1. California Gun Control Laws

4.2.2. New York Gun Control Laws

5. Impact of Gun Control Measures

5.1. Effectiveness of Gun Control Policies

5.2. Controversies and Challenges in Implementing Gun Control

FAQs

1. Does the Second Amendment guarantee an individual right to own guns?
2. Should there be stricter gun control laws in the United States?
3. What types of gun control measures are most effective?
4. How can we balance gun rights with public safety?
5. What role do mental health issues play in gun violence?
6. How does gun violence in the United States compare to other countries?
7. What is the impact of the gun lobby on gun control legislation?
8. Can gun ownership deter crime?
9. Does gun control infringe on the rights of law-abiding citizens?
10. How can we prevent mass shootings and other gun-related tragedies?

1. Introduction

Sex work has a long history, it is the world’s oldest profession. It has been prevalent in a variety of forms since ancient times, often being an occupation which comes to the fore in times of economic crisis or war. It carries a variety of social meanings and has been associated with religious and cultural rites. The status of sex work has often been linked to the socio-economic position of women. In his book The Prostitution of Women and Girls, Barry argues that in times of female oppression, women are likely to resort to sex work because it is a means of best utilizing their sexual and reproductive capacities, over which they may have a comparative advantage. Given this, and the fact that people enter sex work for a variety of reasons, it is crucial not to stereotype sex workers or the reasons why people choose the occupation.

Sex work is not an easy term to define, nor is it one which has a universal meaning. The Oxford Companion to Law suggests that the difficulty in defining sex work arises from the use of the term “prostitution” in law and literature, providing an incomplete term of reference with which to identify the range of work encompassed by sex work. “In most countries anything other than penile/vaginal intercourse in which payment is received is legal–so long as it is not formally solicited as here the crime of prostitute” (Oxford Companion to Law p. 388). Prostitution itself is seen as the exchange of sexual services for money, encompassing a diverse range of activities from phone sex and internet sex to models of escort work which sometimes focus on the provision of non-sexual companionship. A narrow definition of sex work for the purpose of the current essay will be that of prostitution, encompassing the exchange of sex for money.

Sex work is a widespread occupation within contemporary Western society, encompassing a diverse range of activities and individuals, each with a different relationship to law and regulatory practices. This essay will argue that sex work, defined as the exchange of sexual services for money or goods, should be legalized. This is not to suggest that the various forms and implications of sex work are desirable or that the occupation is not without serious problems. However, it will be demonstrated that criminalization of sex work leads to more negative implications than would occur under a system of regulation. Human rights considerations, the health and safety of sex workers, and community welfare are best served through a system which legitimizes sex work and provides for regulation and harm minimization. This policy contradicts the present Victorian response towards sex work, which continues to favor a strategy of repression and eradication.

1.1. Definition of sex work

I then proceed to discuss society’s perception of sex work as deviant or ‘immoral’ behavior. I explain that this perception stems from dominant cultural and religious values and has been reinforced through the criminalization of sex work itself. I explain that this attitude forces sex workers to work in secret or in isolation, using greater unsafe practices and hindering their ability to negotiate safe sex practices with clients. This, in turn, only serves to enforce the notion of sex work as deviant – a self-fulfilling prophecy that only serves to legitimize the discrimination and violence directed at sex workers. I explore the implications this has on society’s perceptions of sex workers as individuals, which are often based on stereotypes of drug addiction, poverty, and mental illness. I conclude that changes in stigma and social attitudes towards sex work are prerequisites to changes in legislation, legal rights, and social policy.

In this section, I begin by discussing the controversial nature of sex work. The terminology used by Western society to label those who sell sexual services has changed several times over the past century, going from ‘prostitute’ to ‘sex worker’ in an attempt to remove the stigma associated with the activity. I explain that for the purpose of this paper, the terms ‘sex work’ and ‘prostitution’ will be used interchangeably to refer to any situation in which money exchanges hands for a sexual service. This is to ensure a broad definition of the types of activities sex workers engage in, as the term prostitution does not fully encompass the nature of all sexual services provided for payment. I discuss that the term sex work is used to describe all prostitution as a form of labor, and that it supports the rights and self-determination of the individual selling sexual services.

1.2. Historical perspective

The medieval period saw the first major attempt by the state to supervise the personal lives of its citizens. Prostitution was well established as an institution in Western Europe, deriving from both pre-Christian and Christian attitudes to female sexuality. Aristotle had thought it a necessary safety valve for the male population. At the Council of Vienna in 1358, the church agreed to tolerate brothels under state supervision as a lesser evil than uncontrollable, clandestine prostitution, and this policy was continued in trials such as the one by public brothel in Bologna, set up by papal decree in 1492 (Bullough and Bullough, 1994). This was a rare concession by the church to the pragmatic needs of its flock, for much of its teaching had been hostile to the institution and it had often been suppressive in its attitudes to unlicensed or irregular sex. The twin peas of unregulated sex outside of marriage and the spread of venereal disease aroused the ire of the clergy, and legal sanctions against prostitution intensified all over Europe from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. The Reformation’s emphasis on social morality led to further suppression, and countries which remained Catholic underwent similar reactions in the Counter-Reformation. France typifies the vacillation between tolerance and condemnation, with reglementation from the 16th to the 18th centuries, outright abolition during the Revolution and Napoleonic era, reinstatement by the police from 1802 to its revocation in 1946 (Bey, et al., 2003).

At different periods over the past thousand years, the attitude of the state has oscillated between intimidation and permissiveness; and in modern times, too, there have been striking changes in national attitudes within Europe. This suggests that the potential for simple binary comment is limited (Lane, 2002).

1.3. Current legal status

Sex work is illegal in most countries. The degree of illegality varies though, and some countries have specific provisions that are aimed at sex work. These provisions can fall under a number of distinct categories, such as public order offences, revenue (tax) offences, specific restrictions for sex workers and their clients, and immigration offences. The more of these laws a country has, the more complex these laws become to enforce. However, none of these laws are aimed at reducing the exploitation of sex workers, and for the most part, enforcement of these laws commonly results in the displacement to more hidden areas and the creation of health and safety issues for sex workers. This is illustrated by the typical law enforcement strategy of periodic crackdowns on sex work. While such laws remain on the statute books in many countries, only Canada has made a serious attempt to reduce the number of laws and simplify the legal treatment of sex work. There are only a few countries that have fully legalised sex work (The Netherlands and Germany being notable examples). Coming from the liberal school of thought, The Netherlands fully legalised sex work in October 2000. Since then, all prostitution is subject to local authority permits, and there are state health checks for sex workers. Other regulations include the outlawing of brothels that do not have the appropriate licenses, and an individual may be required to undergo a medical examination in order to work as a sex worker. Prostitution is also legal in Germany, and both states have a reputation for having migration from countries with high sex work exploitation rates. It could be argued that fully legalising sex work may be a way to reduce the exploitation of foreign sex workers in the long term, as it may be harder to force someone into sex work in a fully legal environment, than in one where it is illegal. Unfortunately, due to EU law on freedom of movement for workers, this has also led to an inflow of illegal immigrants, particularly from Eastern Europe. The migration of foreign sex workers has led to increased reports of some of these workers working in forced prostitution, demonstrating the complex effects of migration in a legal environment.

2. Arguments in Favor of Legalization

2.1. Empowerment and autonomy

2.2. Health and safety regulations

2.3. Economic benefits

3. Arguments Against Legalization

3.1. Exploitation and human trafficking

3.2. Moral and ethical concerns

3.3. Societal implications

4. Comparison of Legalization Models

4.1. Full legalization

4.2. Decriminalization

4.3. Regulation and licensing

5. Case Studies of Legalization

5.1. Netherlands

5.2. Germany

5.3. New Zealand

6. Impact on Public Health

6.1. Access to healthcare services

6.2. STI prevention and control

6.3. Substance abuse and harm reduction

7. Impact on Sex Workers’ Rights

7.1. Labor rights and protections

7.2. Violence and exploitation prevention

7.3. Access to justice

8. Social Stigma and Discrimination

8.1. Stigmatization of sex workers

8.2. Intersectionality and marginalized communities

8.3. Educational campaigns and awareness

9. Regulation and Oversight

9.1. Licensing and registration

9.2. Zoning and location restrictions

9.3. Monitoring and enforcement

10. International Perspectives

10.1. Global approaches to sex work

10.2. Human rights considerations

10.3. International conventions and treaties

11. Conclusion

11.1. Summary of arguments

11.2. Recommendations for policy-makers

FAQs

 

1. Should sex work be legalized?

2. Does legalization improve the safety of sex workers?

3. How can we regulate sex work to prevent exploitation?

4. What are the ethical considerations of sex work legalization?

5. Does sex work legalization promote human trafficking?

6. How can we address the stigma associated with sex work?

7. What role should law enforcement play in regulating sex work?

8. Can sex work ever be a truly consensual profession?

9. How does sex work legalization impact public health?

10. What are the long-term implications of legalizing or criminalizing sex work?

question
The Role of Human Informatics in Chronic Disease Management:
Explain how human informatics can be used to improve chronic disease management.
Focus on how data collection, analysis, and visualization can contribute to better care coordination.
Utilizing patient-generated data (PGD) from wearable devices to track health metrics and identify potential issues.
Applying data analytics to personalize treatment plans and predict potential complications.
Using data visualization tools to create comprehensive patient profiles for informed decision-making.
Discuss the ethical considerations involved in using patient data for chronic disease management.

Answer
1. Introduction
Today, chronic diseases represent a major global health burden. The WHO has estimated that 60% of all deaths worldwide will be the result of chronic diseases by 2020. The treatment of such diseases is increasingly dependent upon the active involvement of the patient, with patient-centered healthcare and a focus on prevention being at the core of modern-day healthcare practice. Patient-centered healthcare is an approach to planning and delivering healthcare that is grounded on mutually beneficial relationships among patients, families, and healthcare practitioners. This represents an attempt to shift the general focus of healthcare practice from the traditional approach towards an approach where the patient is an informed and empowered decision-maker in their care. This is particularly relevant to developmental disorders such as Down’s syndrome and cerebral palsy, where medical interventions cannot increase functioning, and preventive management is critical. A great example of the focus on prevention is the American Down’s Syndrome Preventive Healthcare Guidelines. This is an incredibly detailed guideline that is aimed at preventing further decline of function resulting from complications of associated health problems, such as hypothyroidism or leukemia. This guideline assumes that regular monitoring and treatment of associated conditions will prevent decline in function. An informed patient or, in the case of childhood disorders, the informed parents, can regularly monitor these conditions, and so it can be said that current and future methods of chronic disease management will rely on the availability of health information to the informed patient.
1.1. Overview of chronic disease management
Summary Chronic diseases are currently the dominant form of health problem in the world. A non-communicable condition is defined as lasting for 3 months or more and generally cannot be prevented by a vaccine or rapidly cured. Chronic diseases can have a major impact on an individual by not only being a major cause of premature death but by affecting the person’s quality of life as they can be disabling, which can result in an inability to perform an activity, thus affecting the quality of life. Activity limitation can be common for people with chronic diseases and can have potential effects on the participation of work and, in some cases, be a reason for cessation of work. The level of severity of a chronic disease can vary from mild to severe and generally people spend a lot of time attempting to manage the disease. The management of chronic diseases will often involve attempts to prevent the condition from worsening, potentially resulting in complications which can lead to an urgent need for medical care. Symptoms or the condition itself can be the cause of a bio-psychosocial state that can be distressing for affected individuals (Murray and Lopez et al, 1996). This ongoing management of the chronic conditions is what would be classified as a complex continuing care case, where an individual would have a health issue that is non-curable and would require long-term assistance. This can vary from attempting to repair an activity limitation state to preventing major complications of the diseases. Often, the more complex cases will require an interprofessional team and can involve monitoring and changes to a person’s health regimen to determine what is the most effective form of long-term management of the condition, in turn attempting to prevent further progression of the disease. This may involve the person changing various aspects of their life in an attempt to find an approach to improve their health (Adams et al, 963). This approach to the assessment of the effectiveness of self-management of chronic diseases is known as the clinical assessment phase. This process must be done in a safe manner with minimum harm to the patient. All of the phases of continually attempting to improve a person’s health status with chronic disease are what is attempted to change the natural history of a disease into a more favorable outcome. This type of care is what is attempting to perform improvement illness care on the illness level, as opposed to acute care which generally aims to perform a cure or prevention of a disease.
1.2. Importance of human informatics
Another reason human informatics is vital to chronic disease management is because of the patient centered care and disease management philosophy of today’s health care organizations. Patient centered care is care designed to involve the patient in the process of medical treatment. It is a highly individualized care system with the goal of changing the patient’s health behavior. This is consistent with the coping process described earlier and is something that is best guided by information. The sinew of patient centered care is the frequent interaction between provider and patient aimed at making the best health decision for the patient. This is an interaction rich in information and the failure to provide the correct information at the right time can lead to a decrease in functional health for the patient and/or wasted time and money for the health care provider. Disease management is a more recent philosophy within the healthcare system. It is less a scheme or a distinct program and more an approach to how health care should be delivered to persons with chronic health issues. The aim of disease management is to increase the general health of those with chronic disease so as to avoid any decline in health and functional ability. This is to be attained through treatment and various health interventions. The first step is to understand the nature of the specific disease and what are the best interventions to improve health. Disease management is highly dependent on clinical research and it is there where evidence based medicine is often cited as a tool for making the best health decisions. Evidence based medicine is the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.
The importance of human informatics can be pegged to the basic need of a chronic disease sufferer to cope with their disease. Coping is an interactive process involving the person and their environment. Information helps the person modify their environment and/or their interaction with that environment in a manner that better suits their needs. In the case of the chronic disease sufferer, they are seeking to cope with their disease in a manner that allows them to attain their level of desired function whilst minimizing the effects of the disease. Usually they are needing to adapt to a new set of bodily limitations and/or changes to their social and physical environment. This kind of coping process is highly dependent on information and a lack of appropriate information can lead to self-mismanagement and a decline in health. An acute care patient is seeking a fast and effective cure to their ailment. The treatment decision process for acute care is less dependent on information. Fast forward to today’s world of an exploding chronic disease population where 1 in 3 people in the US are dealing with one or more chronic health issues. The decisions chronic disease sufferers make regarding their health and treatment are more complex and involve weighing the costs and benefits of various outcomes over an extended time period.
There are tremendous human and financial costs that result from the mismanagement of chronic diseases. In the past twenty years, the information age has presented us with a variety of tools that can be employed to better manage chronic disease. These “information age” tools are varied and highly sophisticated ranging from telecommunications and the internet to an array of new diagnostics using DNA/RNA and advanced imaging. The common thread with all of these tools is that they are information based. The rise of these information age tools in many ways mirrors the rise of human informatics. Essentially, human informatics is the science of how best to use information to improve human health.
2. Data Collection in Chronic Disease Management
2.1. Utilizing patient-generated data (PGD)
2.2. Wearable devices for health metric tracking
2.3. Identifying potential issues through data collection
3. Data Analysis in Chronic Disease Management
3.1. Data analytics for personalized treatment plans
3.2. Predicting potential complications through analysis
3.3. Benefits of data-driven decision-making
4. Data Visualization in Chronic Disease Management
4.1. Importance of data visualization tools
4.2. Creating comprehensive patient profiles
4.3. Enhancing care coordination through visualization
5. Ethical Considerations in Chronic Disease Management
5.1. Privacy and security of patient data
5.2. Informed consent for data usage
5.3. Ensuring data confidentiality and integrity
6. Conclusion

Question
Theories of Motivation and Emotion
Instructions:
After reading the required resources, answer the following questions:
1. Compare the six (6) major theories of motivation.
2. Distinguish between the psychological and the biopsychosocial theories of motivation.
3. Differentiate between extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation.
4. Contrast the three theories of emotion.
5. What is your point of view about the theories of motivation and emotion? Explain your answer.

Answer
1. Major Theories of Motivation
The instinct theory no longer has a major role in psychology. It is difficult to prove that most humans have inherited certain behaviors that are not due to learning. Another criticism of behavior due to an instinct is that it does not allow for any flexibility in behavior. Due to the responses being genetically programmed, it does not allow for learning. To combat this, another question could be asked: “Is the act of learning due to an instinct?” This would be difficult to prove as learning behaviors might also be due to another instinct. Despite this, the instinct theory remains the best theory of motivation for some particular animal behaviors.
Instinct theory represents the oldest theory of motivation. The instinct theory suggests that all behaviors, such as sleeping and playing, are caused by instincts. The term instinct in psychology is not an inherited behavior; it is a motivation behind an act. Instincts are the species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned. For example, the pattern of a bird’s nest building is not learned. It will build the nest the same way every time because that is the bird’s instinct. The same goes for the hibernating patterns of bears. Instincts are the motivation behind these acts.
1.1. Instinct Theory
Instinct theory is one of the first theories of motivation and finds its roots in Darwin’s evolutionary theory. Instincts are the natural and inherited tendencies and corresponding behaviors. This theory was prominent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with William James as one of its key proponents. James’ instincts were unlearned and permanent in that once initiated, the behavior is carried until completion. These instinctual sequences usually result in a fixed action pattern, which is similar to an animal’s response to a releasing stimulus where the behavior is essentially on autopilot until completion. For example, a bird building a nest or the migration of geese are said to be a result of specific patterns of complex behavior. The concept of humans having instincts has diminished largely in part to there being no empirical evidence that it is true and debates as to what is an instinct and what is not. This theory has been replaced by more modern perspectives of ethology and sociobiology which are beyond the subject of this article. Instinct theory was heavily criticized in its own time and much of the evidence used against it has posed problems for modern instinct theories. The primary issue being that instinct is difficult to distinguish from learned behavior. Empirical evidence was scarce in support of instinct theory, much of it was based on anecdotes and circular logic in that a behavior was said to be instinctual if it was universal among a population. With no proper definition of what an instinct is and the fact that it is such a difficult concept to test given that much behavior does have the potential to be instinctual, it is simply not an influential theory in the study of motivation today. That is not to say that instinct is not a valid explanation for a behavior in some instances. A recent example of modern instinct theory is Bowlby’s Attachment Theory which has led to a significant amount of research in developmental psychology.
1.2. Drive Reduction Theory
A further advantage is seen in the development of experimental psychology. Many early studies in motivation, such as the works of Clark Hull, were successful in experimental/data collection. Drive theory provides testable predictions and postulates that behavior is environmentally caused. Therefore, experimental manipulation of the environment should cause changes in behavior. This is contrary to many theories of today, which say that much behavior is autonomous and caused by internal influences.
A strength of drive theory is seen in its comprehensive understanding of motivation. More recent theories, such as expectancy theory, are very narrow in comparison and only explain specific areas of motivation. Drive theory encompasses many aspects of motivation and emotion. It is valuable to have a theory that explains the overall concept of motivation, even if the theory does not explain every aspect imaginable.
A classic example is the body’s temperature. If the body’s temperature decreases from the normal 37 degrees, it induces a deficiency in the system and creates a drive state. In this case, the person will be motivated to reduce this deficiency and alleviate the drive state by putting on warm clothing or seeking a warmer environment. Once a stable temperature is achieved, the drive is reduced and the person stops the behavior.
We maintain homeostasis through drives. A drive is a state of arousal/tension induced by a deficiency. As a result of a drive, an organism is motivated to reduce the deficiency and thus alleviate the tension. Sustaining homeostasis is the primary motivation of all behavior.
1.3. Arousal Theory
Arousal theory focuses on biological and physiological aspects of motivation, particularly the level of activity in the brain and the increased neural activity to produce emotion and motivation. There are two types of arousal: the first being the one that prepares us for a specific activity or to reach a specific goal, and the second being unspecific in its source and is the result of tension or anxiety. Arousal levels are measured in the hypothalamus where specific areas relate to increased or decreased arousal. The reticular formation is another key indicator of increased or decreased arousal since this area houses the neural circuits connecting with the autonomic and somatic systems. The more recent means to measure arousal is on the basis of skin conductance and has been deemed the most efficient and easiest method. Erik Thyselius has proposed a tart model to further show the relation of skin conductance and arousal. Arousal theories have the advantage that there is a clear link between the amount of arousal and motivation to perform a specific task. But it does have its disadvantages such as it does not look at the behavior caused by the arousal and it is more directed at biological manner so cognitive and emotional responses are disregarded. Stevan Reiss has developed his own arousal function that presumably reviews and integrates what we know about arousal effects on specific behaviors. He proclaims that arousal effect is the net effect of the intensity of all emotion on behavior and stated that more specific predictions could be made by sorting emotions into taxonomic groups.
1.4. Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory is built on the premise of two factors. The first being the perceived cause-effect relationship, to decide how to act an individual will look at the end result of a behavior and determine what the probable cause of that consequence will be. If they believe that the consequence is highly probable to occur because of their behavior, then the person will likely decide to act. But if the person believes that the consequence isn’t related to the behavior or is due to extraneous factors, they will not attribute a cause and effect relationship and will not be motivated to perform the behavior. This links to the second part of the theory which is the valence of the consequences. This is the perceived value of the consequences associated with a behavior, to determine the value an individual will look at the strength and probability of an outcome and decide how it will affect their sense of self and their life situation. If the consequences will be positive and of a high value then the person will have a strong desire and will be motivated to perform the behavior. If the consequences are negative or of low value, then the person will not be motivated to act.
Individual personal motivation is the key to self-improvement and is defined in various ways. The “Expectancy Theory” is a cognitive approach to understanding motivation, which focuses on how individuals perceive the likelihood of achieving a set goal and their subsequent desire to achieve that goal. Expectancy Theory proposes that individuals will behave based on their conscious expectations; if one believes a particular behavior will lead to their desired outcome they will be more inclined to engage in that behavior. However, if one does not believe that their actions will result in an outcome, or they do not value the outcome even if it is achieved, they are less likely to persist with the behavior; and in the prospect of failure, may abandon the goal altogether. Expectancy Theory is based on the idea of rational choice; people will act in a rational manner to maximize desirable outcomes and minimize undesirable ones. It is assuming that if a person has the freedom to choose they will make decisions aimed at getting what they want and avoiding what they do not want.
1.5. Humanistic Theory
In the 1950s, the U.S. was dominated by a materialistic, anti-intellectual economic boom that was detrimental to the cultivation of genius. Abraham Maslow, just one of the many significant contributors to humanistic psychology, proposed the theory of self-actualization. His approach of human motivation makes a sharper break from traditional psychodynamic perspectives, and even from the empirical Watson, Skinner, and Hull behaviorism, with a homely illustration and understanding of the human being. In developing humanistic psychology, Maslow was impressed by two things. First, he was impressed by the so-called third-force or non-Freudian and non-behavioristic aspects of psychology, that is, the complex and highly intellectual theoretical and experimental endeavors of, for example, Köhler, Lewin or Piaget. The second thing which impressed him was a widespread feeling of dissatisfaction with the dominant US values, a vague malaise that the well off did not know they had, because of their very success, though it was often most dramatically symbolized by the last stages of life such as Goldwater’s presidential campaign. This led him on his voyage of discovery to learn about human beings. He called this new approach, the Third Force in psychology. This contrasts with the determinism of both behaviorists and Freudians. Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual’s behavior is connected to their inner feelings and self-image. E. Rogers (1987) saw an immediate application of this, for helping people to abandon the idealized self and thereby to become more themselves. This epitomizes the process of self-actualization, which is an ongoing process for most people. An artist will be self-actualizing so long as his painting and his self are improving.
1.6. Self-Determination Theory
We possess a variety of sources of motivation. We have inside us all the time, an assortment of wants and needs, and the anticipated pleasure that would come from their gratification. These range from simple desires such as those for food and water, to more complex and sophisticated desires for achievement. A set of self-regulating standards aim orientations set by indirect self-rewarded activities that often entail the development of complex skill congruence between perceived and self-ideal can be similar to internalization of extrinsic motivation. One of the most persistent questions in the field of motivation has been about the underlying nature of these different types of motivation. A focus on the quality of behavior and how self-regulation differentiates from one type of motivation to another is a focus all of the major contemporary motivation theories share. Self-determination theory grew out of research on intrinsic motivation. The interest in it has been largely focused on the different types of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and the underlying. This theory has led to the specification of six mini-theories, each of which is concerned with a different aspect of motivation. Quest for understanding human motivation at a more specific and useful causal level than what is provided for in other theories.
2. Psychological vs Biopsychosocial Theories of Motivation
2.1. Psychological Theories
2.2. Biopsychosocial Theories
3. Extrinsic Motivation vs Intrinsic Motivation
3.1. Extrinsic Motivation
3.2. Intrinsic Motivation
4. Theories of Emotion
4.1. James-Lange Theory
4.2. Cannon-Bard Theory
4.3. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
5. Personal Perspective on Theories of Motivation and Emotion

Question
We have discovered that there are numerous threats to the environment such as overpopulation, global warming, disposal of wastes, and even eco-terrorism.   Do you believe that these concerns are real or are they overstated to satisfy industrial and political agendas?  Of these problems, what concerns you the most?
Answer
1. Introduction
We find ourselves increasingly aware of major concerns about issues in the environment; some so widely known that those not “environmentally aware” are aware of only by name. Depletion of the ozone layer, widespread deforestation, air and water pollution, and the extinction of countless species are all leading examples of issues that have far greater effects than most of us realize. It is important to realize that every action has a reaction, even if we do not see the effects firsthand. These problems are all contributed to human interference in the environment, directly or indirectly. With an expanding population comes the need for more land to support the greater numbers of people, and while providing living space may be a direct cause of habitat destruction, the greater indirect cause is the need for more food sources and economic growth. Economic well-being is important to people all over the world, and this has driven the need for resources and energy. Using cleaner, sustainable energy sources and preventing energy waste can reduce harmful effects on the environment. Unfortunately, the trend is that richer countries are able to move in this direction of sustainable energy, while those countries and communities who are poor often rely on cheaper, dirtier energy sources. These contribute to not only pollution, but damage to ecosystems and health problems for the inhabitants. All these issues are deeply interconnected and are all contributors to the overall issue of global change. This report aims to explain the progression and interconnections of these issues in a logical manner, and to come out with a clearer understanding of the bigger issue at hand. The purposes of my work are to explain and demonstrate through various examples and statistics the vast array of environmental issues that are of global concern today. By increasing awareness and understanding of these issues, we can hope to enable a world that will seek to prevent further damage to the environment, and through active participation each make an impact as an individual. This leads to the next purpose of this work, to show that all these issues are of equal importance when considering their effects on the environment. It is quite often the case that people are aware of only the most publicized issues such as pollution and climate change, and while being big issues in themselves, they are all rooted from a wide array of other issues discussed in this report. An awareness of the global effects and solutions of these issues is necessary on all levels from the individual to the political, so in knowing that the big issue is global change, individuals who are better informed can make better choices and influence others to do the same.
1.1. Background
In the 1960s, concern for the environment resulted in an explosion of environmental legislation and the establishment of such agencies as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the UK Environment Agency. These agencies were designed to protect the environment and also to regulate the exploitation of the environment—development, industry, and land use. In many ways, given its concern for environmental sustainability—the ability to have our increasing material needs met without jeopardizing the quality of life now and for future generations—environmental economics is part and parcel of ecological economics. This field, which emerged in the late 1980s, is a policy-driven effort to change the way the economy affects the environment in largely the same way environmental economics emerged from the concerns of the 1960s regarding environmental degradation. The primary difference between the two is that while ecological economists are inclined to regulate the economy for the sake of environmental protection, environmental economists are inclined to change environmental policy using market-based tools. Despite the economic and environmental concerns, there are many who criticize the SMS process due to its overemphasis on science and economics and its failure to adequately involve the public in defining what is meant by the “healthy ecosystem” that is to be restored or preserved. This charge is founded on a belief that a healthy ecosystem is one whose preservation allows for human activities and settlement patterns that have already encroached upon the ecosystem. Though the SMS process is still new and its efficacy still unproven, the current trend in environmental management—whether market-based or regulatory—is consistent with the field of environmental economics and its underlying doctrine that the environment is valuable for the sake of human welfare. This holds great promise for graduates of economics programs.
1.2. Purpose of the Work
It is asserted that in order for a student to devise solutions for the future, he or she intending to begin a career in these areas should first have an understanding of the problems and their scope. Therefore, a major area of this work is to address the paradox that we face in 1992: that we know the environment is threatened, but we still do not understand precisely why this is so. It is hoped that these students will find the work directly and thoroughly addressing their needs and, in doing so, develop increased awareness and concern for their own environment.
The primary objective of this work is to bring the subject of environmental threats to the attention of students and, in so doing, foster concern and eventually collective action on the part of such readers. The importance of this issue is, of course, enormous, and it is the intention of the writer that some of this concern is reflected in the work to be found here. As a biology teacher, I have become increasingly aware of the desperation of the environmental problems facing the coming generation of students. Unfortunately, the subject is complex and interdisciplinary on one hand, while on the other, there is a wealth of biased and often contradictory literature available. It is therefore difficult to know where to begin in presenting a clear picture of the threats in 1992, and thus it is with some relief that the work is completed. The target audience, however, are not biologists, but rather students of environmental science, geography, economics, and social/policy studies studying within the tertiary sector.
2. Environmental Threats
2.1. Overpopulation
2.1.1. Impact on Resources
2.1.2. Pressure on Ecosystems
2.2. Global Warming
2.2.1. Rising Temperatures
2.2.2. Melting Ice Caps
2.3. Waste Disposal
2.3.1. Pollution of Land and Water
2.3.2. Health Hazards
2.3.3. Recycling Efforts
2.4. Eco-terrorism
2.4.1. Definition and Examples
2.4.2. Impact on Environmental Security
3. Debate: Real Concerns or Political Agendas?
3.1. Arguments for Real Concerns
3.1.1. Scientific Evidence
3.1.2. Global Consensus
3.2. Arguments for Overstated Concerns
3.2.1. Economic Interests
3.2.2. Political Manipulation
4. Personal Concerns
4.1. Evaluation of Threats
4.2. Identifying the Most Pressing Concern
4.2.1. Impact on Future Generations
4.2.2. Immediate Environmental Consequences
5. Conclusion