Genetically Modified Organisms

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are organisms that have been transformed to harbor desirable traits through genetic engineering techniques. Genetic engineering (GE) transfers desirable genomic features from unrelated organisms, usually microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria, into target organisms such as crops like maize or animals like sheep (Teferra, 2021). To modify the target organism, a number of molecular tools are required to express the desirable characteristics. These include genetic transfer methods, cloning vectors facilitating gene transfer, promoters, and selectable markers. A common hereditary transfer method is transformation. In this process, target DNA uptake by microorganisms occurs naturally. Promoters are DNA segments that regulate the expression of genes. They are selected to optimize the desired genes at a specific level of expression. Selectable markers, on the other hand, are proteins with antibiotic resistance. They are used for the identification of transformed clones.

Purpose of GE in Plants

Agricultural industries that are dependent on natural resources face the challenges of water shortage, reduced land, soil erosion, and harsh climatic conditions, which in turn result in short supplies of products. Consequently, genetic engineering presents new opportunities to improve plant production in various ways. These include the production of crops with characteristics such as enhanced insect activity like insect pollination, drought tolerance, herbicide resistance, viral infection tolerance, insect resistance, altered flowering, improved ripening, and enhanced nutritional value. Additionally, plants are genetically modified to express extended shelf-life, facilitating the transportation of perishable crops across the globe. Popular genetically modified crops include Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton, which is resistant to herbicides, papayas with viral immune traits, and tomatoes with delayed ripening.

Creation of Genetically Modified Organisms

Genetic modification of plants follows a sequence of procedures: selection, isolation of target genes, cutting with restriction enzymes, vector transformation, the transformation of host cells, cloning, screening, amplification, modification of the target plant cells, screening, storage, and propagation of the transformed plant. Firstly, the gene of interest (pesticide resistance gene) is selected and isolated from a foreign living organism like Bacillus thuringiensis. Restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA sequences of the isolated gene at specific locations. Then, enzyme ligase is introduced to join the target DNA (T-DNA) to the plasmid vectors. The transformed plasmid vectors are put into selected host cells (Agrobacterium tumefaciens) to facilitate the transfer of the T-DNA.

T-DNA can be delivered into the host cells through electroporation, a technique that utilizes electric pulses to facilitate the uptake of DNA through the cell membrane. The transformed host cells are then cloned and screened through procedures like nucleic acid hybridization to ensure that they carry the T-DNA. The transformed cells are then amplified to produce many copies that are transferred into the target plant cells. Finally, the modified plant cells are stored and propagated for commercial purposes. Common foods containing GMOs include zucchini, papayas, oranges, wheat flour, sugar, and canola oil.

GMOs and Human Consumption

Most consumers are concerned about GMOs and their effect on human health. Zheng & Wang (2021) state that there is no scientific evidence on the long-term impacts of GMOs on human health. Besides that, GMOs have beneficial characteristics such as additional nutritional value and allergen-free foods. Applications of GE technology include the removal of allergens from foods for safer consumption. GE has been successful in the removal of ?-amylase inhibitors, which are major allergens in rice (Shewry & Jones, 2007). Also, improving the nutritional value of foods can be achieved through GE technology. For instance, GE has been applied to incorporate ferritin (iron storage gene) into plants like maize, peas, soybeans, and French beans to increase their iron content (Bouis et al., 2003).

Regulations for GMO Foods

According to the Food and Drug Administration, GM foods to be treated as conventional food products must pass all the food safety tests before they are released for commercial use. For instance, their nutritional value should not be lowered, their modification should only involve substances in the existing human diet, and they should not cause new allergies (Huffman & McCluskey, 2014). The food safety procedures are conducted by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the European Commission (EC), and the Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health, which either approves or rejects GM food (Twardowski and Ma?yska, 2015). In the United States, aspects of GMOs are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Regulations for GMOs include the labeling of products. Governments set up labeling rules primarily to inform consumers about their food. Following the announcement by USDA in 2018, foods containing more than 5% GMO ingredients should be labeled as genetically modified food. FDA also maintains that GM labeling should be applied in cases where the GM food product differs from its natural counterparts by posing risks to human health. In the European Union, manufacturers are required to label products with more than 0.9% of EU-approved GM material.

Furthermore, in some countries, GMO labeling is mandatory and voluntary in other countries. In China, for example, GM labeling is compulsory. The government requires tomatoes, rapeseed, cotton, corn, and soybeans to be labeled with GMO content. The other types of crops not included are voluntarily labeled or not labeled (Zheng & Wang, 2021).

Conclusion

Genetically engineered organisms are created through genetic engineering techniques. A plant or animal is modified by incorporating the gene of interest into the organism, making it more desirable. The purpose of genetic engineering in agriculture is to produce plants with advantageous traits such as improved flowering, improved ripening, herbicide resistance, pesticide resistance, drought tolerance, viral resistance, and prolonged shelf-life. GMO foods are safe for human consumption. They present new opportunities for improving human health. For instance, women with iron deficiency can rely on GM soybeans with additional iron content. Additionally, the government has set regulations concerning GM foods through the FDA, USDA, and EPA organizations. These organizations ensure that GM foods are safe for human consumption before being released for commercial use.

References

Bouis, H., Chassy, B., & Ochanda, J. (2003). 2. Genetically modified food crops and their contribution to human nutrition and food quality. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 14(5-8), 196-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0924-2244(03)00073-6

Huffman, W., & McCluskey, J. (2014). Labeling of genetically modified foods. Handbook on Agriculture, Biotechnology and Development, 467-487. https://doi.org/10.4337/9780857938350.00036

Parekh, S. (2004). The GMO handbook. Humana Press.

Shewry, P., & Jones, H. (2007). Developing allergen-free foods by genetic manipulation. Managing Allergens in Food, 147-158. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845692278.2.147

Teferra, T. (2021). Should we still worry about the safety of GMO foods? Why and why not? A review. Food Science & Nutrition, 9(9), 5324-5331. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.2499

Zheng, Q., & Wang, H. (2021). Do Consumers View the Genetically Modified Food Labeling Systems Differently? “Contains GMO” Versus “Non-GMO” Labels. The Chinese Economy, 54(6), 376-388. https://doi.org/10.1080/10971475.2021.1890356

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Recognize and explain how the scientific method is used to solve problems, make observations and discriminate between scientific and pseudoscientific explanations, weigh the evidence, and make decisions based on the strengths and limitations of scientific knowledge. The scientific method uses knowledge of biological principles, the scientific method, and appropriate technologies to ask relevant questions, develop hypotheses, design and conduct experiments, interpret results, and draw conclusions.

Genetically Modified Organisms

Find at least three reliable information sources related to your chosen topic.

Write a paper with a title page, introduction, several paragraphs addressing the questions, conclusion, and references. You must write in your own words and paraphrase information from the selected information sources, addressing each of the questions for your chosen topic. Your paper should consist of less than 10% direct quotes. Your paper should be 750-1500 words, excluding references and a title page.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs). A friend tells you that she avoids foods containing GMOs because they are unhealthy. You decide to use the knowledge gained from your biology class and some additional research to form your own opinion on GMOs. Answer the following questions backed up by reliable information sources.

What is the purpose of genetic engineering of crop plants? Include at least two specific examples of commonly grown GMO crops. How are GMOs created? Use the provided course materials and make a connection to the central dogma of molecular biology in your explanation. Which foods in your supermarket contain GMOs? Are foods that contain GMOs safe for human consumption? What types of regulations exist for these foods? Clearly explain your reasoning for each answer in your paper and conclude whether or not you agree with your friend.